Lang’s Alcohol Study: An Analysis

The study conducted by researcher Alan Lang on the effects of alcohol represented one of the first approaches to using the double-blind form of study. A double-blind study is a type of study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters themselves know who has received the treatment. In Lang’s (1975) study, he and his colleagues pre-tested amounts of vodka and tonic water, and plain tonic water, to determine whether or not the two can be significantly differentiated from one another. After learning that the two were virtually the same in taste, they recruited college men who described themselves as social drinkers to become participants in the study. Some of the participants drank vodka and tonic water while others drank tonic water alone. It was then revealed in the study that practically half of the men who drank vodka and tonic water thought they were drinking tonic water only, while those who did drink tonic water alone thought their drink was mixed with vodka. The last part of the experiment entailed provoking the participants, and the result was that those who believed that they had drunk vodka displayed more anger than those who thought they had drank tonic water only. It can be said then that the primary purpose of Lang’s entire study was to discover the effects of alcohol on human behavior. However, his study deviated from the normal process of using alcohol as a means of studying behavior because of the incorporated element of a double-blind. Also, his study could be defined as a correlational one, as it basically sought to find a relationship between the alcohol and the provoked aggressiveness among the participants. Only a primary source was used, and the subjects in this case were college students of the male gender. As for the selection of the participants for the study however, random selection was not utilized as only men who specifically described themselves as social drinkers were chosen to take part. The reason for this was probably because it was imperative for the results of the study that the participants be drinkers by nature, as only they could effectively have the best chance of differentiating vodka and tonic from tonic water alone. To do random selection would have been difficult as the researchers would have no guarantee as to the drinking preferences of the participants. The sampling method used was also not stratified, as in stratification, the sample population is first divided into a number of parts or â€Å"strata,† in order to relate it to the major variables being studied. The independent variable (IV) in this case is the alcohol given to the participants, whether it was vodka and tonic or plain tonic water alone. The dependent variable (DV) was the response of the participants, specifically the level of aggression displayed in response to the provocation done by the researchers. The theory for this study is that it was done in order to determine the effects alcohol could have on behavior, regardless of whether it (alcohol) was actually given or if it was merely perceived. A probable hypothesis would be that it the mere perception that alcohol was a part of one’s drink could effectively lead to a change in behavior on the part of the participants, without the need for the actual consumption of the alcohol. As evidenced by the documented results, this is exactly what happened. While the research is for the most part valid, especially with the use of the double-blind approach, there are nevertheless certain flaws in the procedure and methodology that could be improved upon by those who would later conduct related studies. First of all, the length of time with which the experiment was done could have been lengthened so that there would be more time to test the reactions of the participants. The use of other forms of alcohol other than vodka and tonic water would have also been a welcome addition to the process of the research, as it would lend even more credibility to the results of the study. The provocation itself could be placed under question; the researchers should have first taken steps to make sure that the provocation would not unknowingly trigger any previously stored extreme emotions. As an example, if one of the participants were black and the provocation was racially charged, this could serve to heighten the aggravated response of the participant as opposed to what would have been only a normal reaction. Perhaps the largest extraneous variable of all was the non-random selection of participants for the study. While it is noted that the researchers needed participants to be social drinkers to validate the differentiation process, there could have been other ways to better improve selection and reduce bias and other threats to validity. What could have been done was to select a large population of college students randomly and then determine who among those selected were drinkers. From that sample, the researchers could have then applied another randomization process to come up with the final list of participants. Nevertheless, in summary the Lang study has proven to contribute much to the body of knowledge in psychology, and for all its faults, still remains to be one of the classic psychological experiments worthy of emulation. Works Cited Rathus, Spencer. Psychology: Concepts and Connections, 9th Ed.. Thomson and Wadworth, 2007. Jung, John. Psychology of Alcohol and Other Drugs: A Research Perspective. Sage Publications, Inc., 2000. Haggert, Steve. Medical Psychology of Alcohol Drinking and Addiction: Index of New Information and References. Abbe Pub Assn. of Washington D.C., 1996 G

Sampling

SamplingSamplingis that portion ofstatisticalpractice concerned with the choice of an indifferent orrandomsubset of single observations within a population of persons intended to give some cognition about thepopulationof concern, particularly for the intents of doing anticipations based onstatistical illation. Sampling is an of import facet ofdata collection.AL The three chief advantages of trying are that the cost is lower, informations aggregation is faster, and since the information set is smaller it is possible to guarantee homogeneousness and to better the truth and quality of the informations. Eachobservationmeasures one or more belongingss ( such as weight, location, colour ) of discernible organic structures distinguished as independent objects or persons. Insurvey sampling, study weights can be applied to the informations to set for thesample design. Results fromprobability theoryandstatistical theoryare employed to steer pattern.ProcedureThe sampling procedure comprises several phases: * Specifying the population of concern * Stipulating asampling frame, asetof points or events possible to mensurate * Stipulating asampling methodfor choosing points or events from the frame * Determining the sample size * Implementing the sampling program * Sampling and informations roll uping * Reviewing the sampling procedurePopulation definitionSuccessful statistical pattern is based on focussed job definition. In trying, this includes specifying thepopulationfrom which our sample is drawn. A population can be defined as including all people or points with the characteristic one want to understand. Because there is really seldom adequate clip or money to garner information from everyone or everything in a population, the end becomes happening a representative sample ( or subset ) of that population. Although the population of involvement frequently consists of physical objects, sometimes we need to try over clip, infinite, or some combination of these dimensions. For case, an probe of supermarket staffing could analyze check-out procedure line length at assorted times, or a survey on endangered penguins might take to understand their use of assorted runing evidences over clip. For the clip dimension, the focal point may be on periods or distinct occasions.Sampling frameIn the most straightforward instance, such as the sentencing of a batch of stuff from production ( credence sampling by tonss ) , it is possible to place and mensurate every individual point in the population and to include any one of them in our sample. However, in the more general instance this is non possible. There is no manner to place all rats in the set of all rats. Not all frames explicitly list population elements. For illustration, a street map can be used as a frame for a door-to-door study ; although i t does n't demo single houses, we can choose streets from the map and so see all houses on those streets. The sampling frame must be representative of the population and this is a inquiry outside the range of statistical theory demanding the judgement of experts in the peculiar capable affair being studied. All the above frames omit some people who will vote at the following election and incorporate some people who will non ; some frames will incorporate multiple records for the same individual. Peoples non in the frame have no chance of being sampled. Statistical theory Tells us about the uncertainnesss in generalizing from a sample to the frame. In generalizing from frame to population, its function is motivational and implicative. A frame may besides supply extra ‘auxiliary information ‘ about its elements ; when this information is related to variables or groups of involvement, it may be used to better study design.Probability and non chance tryingAprobability samplingscheme is one in which every unit in the population has a opportunity ( greater than zero ) of being selected in the sample, and this chance can be accurately determined. The combination of these traits makes it possible to bring forth indifferent estimations of population sums, by burdening sampled units harmonizing to their chance of choice. Probability trying includes: Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, and Stratified Sampling, Probability Proportional to Size Sampling, and Cluster or Multistage Sampling. These assorted ways of chance trying have two things in common: 1. Every component has a known nonzero chance of being sampled and 2. Involves random choice at some point. Nonprobability samplingis any sampling method where some elements of the population havenochance of choice, or where the chance of choice ca n't be accurately determined. It involves the choice of elements based on premises sing the population of involvement, which forms the standard for choice. Hence, because the choice of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does non let the appraisal of trying mistakes. These conditions place bounds on how much information a sample can supply about the population. Information about the relationship between sample and population is limited, doing it hard to generalize from the sample to the population. Nonprobability Sampling includes: Accidental Sampling, Quota SamplingandPurposive Sampling. In add-on, nonresponse effects may turnanyprobability design into a nonprobability design if the features of nonresponse are non good understood, since nonresponse efficaciously modifies each component ‘s chance of being sampled.Sampling methodsWithin any of the types of frame identified above, a assortment of trying methods can be employed, separately or in combination. Factors normally act uponing the pick between these designs include: * Nature and quality of the frame * Availability of subsidiary information about units on the frame * Accuracy demands, and the demand to mensurate truth * Whether detailed analysis of the sample is expected * Cost/operational concernsSimple random tryingIn asimple random sample ( ‘SRS ‘ ) of a given size, all such subsets of the frame are given an equal chance. Each component of the frame therefore has an equal chance of choice: the frame is non subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any givenpairof elements has the same opportunity of choice as any other such brace ( and likewise for three-base hits, and so on ) . This minimises prejudice and simplifies analysis of consequences. In peculiar, the discrepancy between single consequences within the sample is a good index of discrepancy in the overall population, which makes it comparatively easy to gauge the truth of consequences. However, SRS can be vulnerable to trying mistake because the entropy of the choice may ensue in a sample that does n't reflect the make-up of the population. For case, a simple random sample of 10 people from a given state willon averageproduce five work forces and five adult females, but any given test is likely to overrepresent one sex and underrepresent the other. SRS may besides be cumbrous and boring when trying from an remarkably big mark population. In some instances, research workers are interested in research inquiries specific to subgroups of the population. For illustration, research workers might be interested in analyzing whether cognitive ability as a forecaster of occupation public presentation is every bit applicable across racial groups. SRS can non suit the demands of research workers in this state of affairs because it does non supply subsamples of the population.Systematic samplingSystematic samplingrelies on set uping the mark population harmonizing to some telling strategy and so choosing elements at regular intervals through that ordered list. Systematic trying involves a random start and so returns with the choice of everykth component from so onwards. In this instance, k= ( population size/sample size ) . It is of import that the starting point is non automatically the first in the list, but is alternatively indiscriminat ely chosen from within the first to thekth component in the list. Equally long as the get downing point israndomized, systematic sampling is a type ofprobability sampling. It is easy to implement and thestratificationinduced can do it efficient, ifthe variable by which the list is ordered is correlated with the variable of involvement. However, systematic sampling is particularly vulnerable to cyclicities in the list. If cyclicity is present and the period is a multiple or factor of the interval used, the sample is particularly likely to beunrepresentative of the overall population, doing the strategy less accurate than simple random sampling. Another drawback of systematic sampling is that even in scenarios where it is more accurate than SRS, its theoretical belongingss make it hard toquantifythat truth. Systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all elements have the same chance of choice.Stratified samplingWhere the population embraces a figure of distinguishable classs, the frame can be organized by these classs into separate â€Å" strata. † Each stratum is so sampled as an independent sub-population, out of which single elements can be indiscriminately selected. There are several possible benefits to stratified sampling. First, spliting the population into distinguishable, independent strata can enable research workers to pull illations about specific subgroups that may be lost in a more generalised random sample. Second, using a graded sampling method can take to more efficient statistical estimations ( provided that strata are selected based upon relevancy to the standard in inquiry, alternatively of handiness of the samples ) . Even if a graded sampling attack does non take to increased statistical efficiency, such a maneuver will non ensue in less efficiency than would simple random sampling, provided that each stratum is relative to the group ‘s size in the population. Third, it is sometimes the instance that informations are more readily available for single, preexistent strata within a population than for the overall population ; in such instances, utilizing a graded sampling attack may be more convenient than aggregating informations across groups ( though this may potentially be at odds with the antecedently noted importance of using criterion-relevant strata ) . Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different trying attacks can be applied to different strata, potentially enabling research workers to utilize the attack best suited ( or most cost-efficient ) for each identified subgroup within the population. A graded sampling attack is most effectual when three conditions are met 1. Variability within strata are minimized 2. Variability between strata are maximized 3. The variables upon which the population is stratified are strongly correlated with the coveted dependant variable.Advantages over other trying methods1. Focuss on of import subpopulations and ignores irrelevant 1s. 2. Allows usage of different trying techniques for different subpopulations. 3. Improves the accuracy/efficiency of appraisal. 4. Licenses greater reconciliation of statistical power of trials of differences between strata by trying equal Numberss from strata changing widely in size.Disadvantages1. Requires choice of relevant stratification variables which can be hard. 2. Is non utile when there are no homogenous subgroups. 3. Can be expensive to implement.Probability proportional to size samplingIn some instances the sample interior decorator has entree to an â€Å" subsidiary variable † or â€Å" size step † , believed to be correlated to the variable of involvement, for each component in the population. This information can be used to better truth in sample design. One option is to utilize the subsidiary variable as a footing for stratification, as discussed above. Another option is probability-proportional-to-size ( ‘PPS ‘ ) sampling, in which the choice chance for each component is set to be relative to its size step, up to a upper limit of 1. In a simple PPS design, these choice chances can so be used as the footing forPoisson trying. However, this has the drawbacks of variable sample size, and different parts of the population may still be over- or under-represented due to opportunity fluctuation in choices. To turn to this job, PPS may be combined with a systematic attack. The PPS attack can better truth for a given sample size by concentrating sample on big elements that have the greatest impact on population estimations. PPS sampling is normally used for studies of concerns, where component size varies greatly and subsidiary information is frequently available – for case, a study trying to mensurate the figure of guest-nights spent in hotels might utilize each hotel ‘s figure of suites as an subsidiary variable. In some instances, an older measuring of the variable of involvement can be used as an subsidiary variable when trying to bring forth more current estimations.Bunch tryingSometimes it is cheaper to ‘cluster ‘ the sample in some manner e.g. by choosing respondents from certain countries merely, or certain time-periods merely. ( About all samples are in some sense ‘clustered ‘ in clip – although this is seldom taken into history in the analysis. ) Cluster samplingis an illustration of ‘two-stage trying ‘ or ‘multistage trying ‘ : in the first phase a sample of countries is chosen ; in the 2nd phase a sample of respondentswithinthose countries is selected. This can cut down travel and other administrative costs. It besides means that one does non necessitate asampling framelisting all elements in the mark population. Alternatively, bunchs can be chosen from a cluster-level frame, with an element-level frame created merely for the selected bunchs. Cluster trying by and large increases the variableness of sample estimations above that of simple random sampling, depending on how the bunchs differ between themselves, as compared with the within-cluster fluctuation. However, some of the disadvantages of bunch trying are the trust of sample estimation preciseness on the existent bunchs chosen. If bunchs chosen are biased in a certain manner, illations drawn about population parametric quantities from these sample estimations will be far off from being accurate.Matched random tryingA method of delegating participants to groups in which brace of participants are foremost matched on some characteristic and so separately assigned indiscriminately to groups. The process for matched random sampling can be briefed with the following contexts, * Two samples in which the members are clearly paired, or are matched explicitly by the research worker. For illustration, IQ measurings or braces of indistinguishable twins. * Those samples in which the same property, or variable, is measured twice on each topic, under different fortunes. Normally called perennial steps. Examples include the times of a group of jocks for 1500m before and after a hebdomad of particular preparation ; the milk outputs of cattles before and after being fed a peculiar diet.Quota tryingInquota sampling, the population is foremost segmented intomutually exclusivesub-groups, merely as instratified sampling. Then judgement is used to choose the topics or units from each section based on a specified proportion. For illustration, an interviewer may be told to try 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60. It is this 2nd measure which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling. In quota trying the choice of the sample is non-random. For illustration interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful. The job is that these samples may be biased because non everyone gets a opportunity of choice. This random component is its greatest failing and quota versus chance has been a affair of contention for many old agesConvenience samplingConvenience samplingis a type of nonprobability trying which involves the sample being drawn from that portion of the population which is close to manus. That is, a sample population selected because it is readily available and convenient. The research worker utilizing such a sample can non scientifically do generalisations about the entire population from this sample because it would non be representative plenty. For illustration, if the interviewer was to carry on such a study at a shopping centre early in the forenoon on a given twenty-four hours, the people that he/she could interview would be limited to those given there at that given clip, which would non stand for the positions of other members of society in such an country, if the study was to be conducted at different times of twenty-four hours and several times per hebdomad. This type of trying is most utile for pilot proving. Several of import considerations for research workers utilizing convenience samples include: * Are at that place controls within the research design or experiment which can function to decrease the impact of a non-random, convenience sample whereby guaranting the consequences will be more representative of the population? * Is at that place good ground to believe that a peculiar convenience sample would or should react or act otherwise than a random sample from the same population? * Is the inquiry being asked by the research 1 that can adequately be answered utilizing a convenience sample?Panel samplingPanel samplingis the method of first choosing a group of participants through a random trying method and so inquiring that group for the same information once more several times over a period of clip. Therefore, each participant is given the same study or interview at two or more clip points ; each period of informations aggregation is called a â€Å" moving ridge † . This trying methodological analysis is frequently chosen for big graduated table or nation-wide surveies in order to estimate alterations in the population with respect to any figure of variables from chronic unwellness to occupation emphasis to weekly nutrient outgos. Panel sampling can besides be used to inform research workers about within-person wellness alterations due to age or aid explicate alterations in uninterrupted dependent variables such as bridal interaction. There have been se veral proposed methods of analysing panel sample informations, including MANOVA, growing curves, and structural equation patterning with lagged effects.Replacement of selected unitsSampling strategies may bewithout replacementorwith replacing. For illustration, if we catch fish, mensurate them, and instantly return them to the H2O before go oning with the sample, this is a WR design, because we might stop up catching and mensurating the same fish more than one time. However, if we do non return the fish to the H2O ( e.g. if we eat the fish ) , this becomes a WOR design.FormulasWhere the frame and population are indistinguishable, statistical theory outputs exact recommendations onsample size. However, where it is non straightforward to specify a frame representative of the population, it is more of import to understand thecause systemof which the population are results and to guarantee that all beginnings of fluctuation are embraced in the frame. Large Numberss of observations are o f no value if major beginnings of fluctuation are neglected in the survey. In other words, it is taking a sample group that matches the study class and is easy to study. Research Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journalthat provides an account of Cochran ‘s expression. A treatment and illustration of sample size expressions, including the expression for seting the sample size for smaller populations, is included. A tabular array is provided that can be used to choose the sample size for a research job based on three alpha degrees and a set mistake rate.Stairss for utilizing sample size tabular arraies1. Contend the consequence size of involvement, ? , and ? . 2. Check sample size tabular array 1. Choose the tabular array matching to the selected ? 2. Locate the row matching to the coveted power 3. Locate the column matching to the estimated consequence size 4. The intersection of the column and row is the minimal sample size required.Sampling and informations aggregationGood informations aggregation involves:* Following the defined sampling procedure * Keeping the information in clip order * Noting remarks and other contextual events * Recording non-responses Most sampling books and documents written by non-statisticians focused merely in the informations aggregation facet, which is merely a little though of import portion of the sampling procedure.Mistakes in researchThere are ever mistakes in a research. By trying, the entire mistakes can be classified into trying mistakes and non-sampling mistakes.Sampling mistakeSampling mistakes are caused by trying design. It includes: ( 1 ) Choice mistake: Incorrect choice chances are used.( 2 ) Appraisal mistake: Biased parametric quantity estimation because of the elements in these samples.Non-sampling mistakeNon-sampling mistakes are caused by the errors in informations processing. It includes: ( 1 ) Overcoverage: Inclusion of informations from exterior of the population.( 2 ) Undercoverage: Sampling frame does non include elements in the population.( 3 ) Measurement mistake: The respondents misunderstand the inquiry.( 4 ) Processing mistake: Mistakes in informations cryptography. In many state of affairss the sample fraction may be varied by stratum and informations will hold to be weighted to right stand for the population. Thus for illustration, a simple random sample of persons in the United Kingdom might include some in distant Scots islands who would be extraordinarily expensive to try. A cheaper method would be to utilize a graded sample with urban and rural strata. The rural sample could be under-represented in the sample, but weighted up suitably in the analysis to counterbalance. More by and large, informations should normally be weighted if the sample design does non give each person an equal opportunity of being selected. For case, when families have equal choice chances but one individual is interviewed from within each family, this gives people from big families a smaller opportunity of being interviewed. This can be accounted for utilizing study weights. Similarly, families with more than one telephone line have a greater opportunity of being selected in a random figure dialing sample, and weights can set for this.

Contract of Documents between Macbeth and Noddy Bank

The contract for sale which Macbeth had entered with Weetocrunch Ltd is a separate contract with that of the contract entered with the banks with regards to the documentary credits. For the purposes of this question, we are only dealing with the contract of the documents between Macbeth and the confirming bank, Noddy Bank. Noddy bank had been authorized in this case by the issuing bank, Toytown Bank to pay the beneficiary, also known as the seller, Macbeth for the goods he had shipped to Weetocrunch.It is only upon presentation by Macbeth of valid documents that complies with the terms and requirements stated in the Letter of credit that had been opened by Toytown Bank on behalf of Weetocrunch, that he can receive his payment. As it is the letter of credit acts as some form of safeguard for seller that he will receive his payment as once the bank opens the letter of credit, they are under a contractual obligation to pay the seller upon presentation of complying documents.In this case , it can be seen that the documents presented by Macbeth had been ejected twice by the bank, first on the grounds that the documents are not original and secondly where the description of the goods in the bill of lading differs. For that we refer to the body known as Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (UCP) which governs the practice of documentary credit. It should be noted that the law construed by UCP must be incorporated into the contract by the parties for it to have legal effect.However, even if it is not incorporated, the courts are likely to view it as impliedly incorporated as it has gained igh level of acceptance among international bankers. Therefore, assuming that IJCP applies in this case, the documents involved are bound by the UCP articles. Under UCP 600, article 15, the bank that is presented with documents have to ensure that they comply with the terms of the credit and if the document complies, they have to pay and under IJCP 500 article 13(a), th e bank is to examine the documents with reasonable care to ascertain whether they appear on the face to be in compliance with the requirement of the credit.If the documents are however not in ompliance, the bank under UCP 600 article 14(b) reserves the right to reject them. It is therefore establish here that the bank do have a right to reject documents. In this case then, the two issues to be dealt with are (1) whether the bank had the right to reject the photocopied custom certificate and (2)whether the bank had the right to reject the bill of lading because of the description error.Issue 1: UCP 600, Article 17(b) states that there should at least be one original of each stipulated document be tendered to the bank and it shall be treated as original it it ore an original signature, mark, stamp or label of the issuer of the document unless the document indicates it is not original and under 17(c), a bank shall also accept a document as original if it appears so be written, typed or stamped by the document issuer's hand, or by the document issuer's original stationary or states that it is original.In this case, it is not stated whether the document had any kind of markings of whether it was indicated as original on it, it was merely stated that it was a photocopied version that was rejected. Assuming that there were no markings as uch, then It could be inferred that the rejection was Justified following the case of Glencore International AG v Bank of China where the documents were rejected because the photocopies were not marked as original.In that case, it was also stated that a signature on photocopied piece does not make it an original but merely an authenticated copy. However, following the case of Credit Industriel et Commercial v China Merchants Bank, it was held that for obvious original documents, they need not be marked and for photocopied documents where there is a stamp of the upplier's name, address and telephone no. with an ink signature, the cour t accepted it as original even though it was not stamped ‘original'.Therefore if there were such markings found on the photocopied custom certificate and the bank had rejected it, the bank may be liable for wrongly rejecting the documents. Issue 2: As mentioned earlier, the bank have to put up with strict compliance when handling documents presented by the beneficiaries. They have to ensure that the documents meets the necessary terms and conditions stated in the letter of credit and as once emarked by Viscount Sumner in Equitable Trust Co of New York v Dawson Partners Ltd, there is no room for documents which are almost the same, or which will do Just as well. In Seaconsar Far East Ltd v Bank Markazi Jomhouri Islami Iran, the letter of credit stipulated that all the documents presented must bear LC number and the buyer's name. When one of the document failed to have the LC no. on it, the bank rejected it and the court found that its action was Justified. Similarly, in JH Rayn er & Co Ltd, Hambro's Bank Ltd, the credit stipulated â€Å"Coromandel Groundnuts† but the eller presented a bill of lading that states â€Å"Machine-shelled groundnuts. Though it had been known for these terms to be used interchangeable, the court found that the bank had the right to reject the documents. By following this case itself, we might be able to infer that the bank was right in rejecting the documents when the bill of lading states ‘Eastern Wheat' instead of ‘Ruritanian wheat'and that fact that it is well known in the wheat trade that the wheat are identical will not matter.However, Macbeth may still have a chance if they are able to prove that the error was ne of trivial discrepancy. As stated under IJCP 600 article 30(b), the IJCP do allow certain discrepancies. However, what is meant by trivial is unclear. In Glencore International AG v Bank of China, the word branch which was used instead of brand was tound to be merely an error whereas the court w as not as generous in Beyene v Irving Trust Co. , where the bill of lading which had misspelled Mohammed Soran instead of Mohammed Sofan was rejected.It is therefore not certain whether Macbeth will be able to reply on this but chances are it appears to be very slim. b) As explained in question (a), the bank will have to put up with strict compliance when handling with the documents presented by the beneficiaries and they reserve the right to reject the documents when following their own Judgment and feels that it does not comply with the terms and conditions of the letter of credit.In this second situation, it not much about an accepting or rejecting documents matter but one which involves fraud. An amendment has been made to the bill of lading by someone to change the date of shipment from 2 February to 31 January and although it has een clearly stated that Macbeth was not responsible for this amendment, he may still be liable for fraud under misrepresentation if he carries on to seek for payment as he was aware of the alteration.In the case Standard Chartered Bank v Pakistan National Shipping Corpn, it was held that there will be fraud if the beneficiary or their agent presents documents knowing they contain untrue statements and intending they should be acted on by the person receiving the documents and it will not matter whatever their motive was. It will be a totally different issue however here the beneficiary or the agent was not aware of the untruth and had acted in good faith.In this case however it appears unlikely to be so as Macbeth had made a discovery. Therefore, if Macbeth continues to tender the shipping documents to the Noddy bank, Noddy bank will reserve the right to refuse payment if the bank is able to rely on the alteration of the dates on the bill of lading as compelling evidence of fraudulent presentation by Macbeth. What Macbeth will have to do now after rejection is to after the original company where he had bought the wheat from.

Biographical essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Biographical - Essay Example Chamberlain must have governed in frenzy of faith that the mad man of Germany would calm down soon. He must have played the gentle man that Britain was not going to blow the first whistle on Germany. While Hitler, Mussolini and Japan came out openly as rogue leaders and state, we sat back and watched. It seems nothing was wrong with the invasion of Manchuria. It seemed it was all okay to embark on rapid militarization of Rhineland. The appeasement policy massaged Hitler’s roaming appetites for war. I have today set foot on Europe to bring good news, thanks to Chamberlain and the appeasement policy (McDonough 1). I bring good news from the world on the other side pacific that we are indeed very sorry for this war, which the world could have avoided. This is the news that I bring with a gun on my hand and explosives on my back.† Powell spearheaded many military strategies and by October 1944, there was huge progress. He helped in designing the D-Day operations and strategi es, much to the success of the Allied. After the end of the war, Powell returned to work in Europe under the Marshall Plan. He records in his diary the following. â€Å"The Marshall Plan is a big boost in the recovery of Western Europe and Japan in the post-war period. I can see a future beyond the rubble, hunger and starvation. Even so, I fail to understand why the Russians with whom we had just fought on the same side could be taking advantage of the situation. I foresee a quite friction between the ambitious Soviet and the USA. I believe it is now time for reconstruction, not for claiming plunders of the war. Otherwise, I may consider that I fought on the wrong side of the war.† Amongst other entries, Powell observes that the onset of the Cold War started with Russia’s taking advantage of the small nations. He also notes that in the aftermath of the war, many states in Eastern Europe were still weak. Rather than being left to their own determination, Russia was forc ing them one after another into communism. It is then that the US acted under the Truman’s Doctrine (McDonough 1). Under the Truman’s Doctrine, it became the official policy of the US to support any free people resisting attempted subjugation by an armed foreign force. To counter the emerging tyranny of Russian, Powell received orders to watch keenly the developments in Eastern Europe and advise accordingly. This was the early years of the Cold War in the aftermath of WWII. Powell was also not an apologist for the Hiroshima and Nagasaki situation on the account that it was a consequence of war. He based his reasoning purely on war strategy. From his 1945 diaries, he has offered sufficient reason why the use of the atomic bomb was unavoidable (Doyle 1). As noted in his diary, he enters the following: â€Å"The world seems to forget so fast. Just the other day were dealing with Hitler and Mussolini. That is over, and the next rogue is Russia. The United States is practi cally fighting proxy wars to help those whose right to free determination is under threat by the USSR. It is foolhardy to start playing blame games at this moment on whether the atomic bomb solution is justified.† Powell indicates that when the United States resolved to use atomic bombs on Japan, it was because that was the only solution left. Germany and other axis powers had been subdued and surrendered. The war had dragged for too long, but Japan was not

Addictive Behaviours Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Addictive Behaviours - Essay Example There is immense research on the mechanisms of addiction as far as substance abuse and alcohol addiction are concerned. As of now, there is very little research into this aspect with reference to addictive behaviors like gambling. Though many researchers argue similar pathogenesis in all addictive behaviours, research into this perspective is warranted. Acute and chronic stress have been incriminated in the mechanism of development of addiction in all types of addictive behaviours. However, it is yet unclear as to what type and extent of stress, timing of stress and coping strategies against stress cause such negative implications towards ones behaviour. In this essay, mechanisms involved in the development of addictive gambling will be elucidated through review of appropriate literature and with reference to pathophysiology of addiction of substances and alcohol. There are several substances which are addictive in nature. Of these, marijuana is the most widely consumed illicit drug in the world (Maxwell, 2003). According to the statistics on drug abuse published by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare in 2002 (based on National Drug Strategy Household Survey, 2001), marijuana constituted 33.1% of the illicit drugs ever used. It also constituted 12.9% of the drugs recently used. The mean age of initiation was 18.5 years. The consumption of marijuana overseas was most prevalent in New-Zealand (20%) and least in Canada (8.9%). The prevalence in U.K and U.S was same (9%) (Maxwell 2003). Most often it is consumed with other illicit drugs like cocaine (called ‘blunts’) or tobacco. It is taken in mainly for the mental effects like altered state of consciousness, perceptual changes like hallucinations and heightened sensory experiences. The main active chemical having psycho-activity in marijuana is THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocann abinol) (Astolfi et al, 1998). Other than euphoria and hallucinations, marijuana has other effects

Race & Modernism in Jean Toomer's Cane Research Paper

Race & Modernism in Jean Toomer's Cane - Research Paper Example The research paper "Race & Modernism in Jean Toomer's Cane" investigates race & modernism in "Cane" of Jean Toomer. Tom suffers a gruesome death at the hands of the white people. Although the story is centered around racial issues, the concept of death provokes emotions within the reader, and the graphic description of the death Tom suffers increases the degree to which emotions are induced within the readers. Toomer uses a racial slur to enhance the scene when a crowd member shouts â€Å"two deaths for a goddamn nigger.† The imagery of the death is magnified by the gruesome nature in which it occurs, as Tom â€Å"could be seen within the flames. Only his head, erect, lean, like a blackened stone. Stench of burning flesh soaked the air. Tom's eyes popped.† Toomer’s graphic imagery evokes a reaction, repelling readers with the gory details of Tom’s murder. The text is embedded in American culture and history. Toomer’s story is set in the state of Geo rgia in an unnamed factory town. In â€Å"Blood-Burning Moon† this is not explicitly men-tioned, though hinted at through the name of one of the characters, Old David Georgia. However, since this text is part of a larger collection, it should be known to the reader who has read the preceding texts. The connotations with Georgia – e.g. Southern, rural – may not be known to every reader in the target culture. However, this is not a real problem since they are made explicit in the text. The author mentions that factory town is in the South.

Airports Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Airports - Research Paper Example The terrorists have started to believe that they can fulfill their objectives by ransacking property within the airports and by making people hostage due to the element of terror that comes to their rescue. What is even significant is the fact that they feel terrorism can turn the tide their way and make their unsuccessful attempts at propagating a message change into successful ones. The menace at airports is not just limited to the terrorism domains alone. These have also included the peril of smuggled goods and items across the shores. This is an element that demands a great deal of attention by the people who are behind such rackets. The airports are therefore the places where the terrorists find the best spot to make sure that the people remain under the subjugation of their objectives and goals (Alvarenga, 2011). Smuggling has been much talked about in the recent times and even the media has spoken about this subject in entirety. What this has implicated for is the fact that sm uggling can create bottlenecks for the government of the land, and thus could create anarchy of sorts. The role of the government under such considerations remains an important one.

Systems Development Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Systems Development Case Study - Essay Example As Pepsico need to improve the control of its spending, this is the reason why Pepsico decided to implement Purchase to Pay. This way, Pepsico could more easily track and analyze purchases, negotiate important discounts on volumes and prevent the overcharged orders. Most of all, Pepsico's objective was to obtain a centralized database of vendors and to make the entire process easier. We are explained, that Pepsico used to pay each vendor at every purchase. With Purchase to Pay, Pepsico makes monthly payments for each vendor, making the entire process less bureaucratic and easier to follow as the vendor is provided itemized statement detailing each bill of lading, invoice number, the amount of each check, and the grand total. The systems development life cycle approach which would have been best used for Pepsico's project regards the nature of the waste that Pepsico suffers from its vendors. By approaching the problem directly where it comes from Pepsico is approaching the problem the best way. Identifying the source of the problem allowed Pepsico to dispose of a wide range of solutions to tackle the issue. Apparently, Purchase to Pay seems to be fitting. Pepsico states that they anticipate" a savings of more than $10 million in the system's first year of operation and more than $43 million over the next three years". If we are in the situation of putting up a systems development life cycle, in the case of Pepsico it woul... e are in the situation of putting up a systems development life cycle, in the case of Pepsico it would appear that vendors would result as an issue, mainly because they are initially the major part of the problem. We would have the difficult task to identify why there are some purchases that are overcharged by some vendors and incorporate these data to the system which would result in helping Pepsico negotiate volume discounts. However, this difficult task would become increasingly difficult as we have to face the other side of the problem, which are the staff of Pepsico who couldn't originally - by a lack of knowledge, training or data - identify the issue when dealing with vendors. In consequence, the investigation should reflect the need of Pepsico to have a better communication within the purchase department. The opportunity inside the environment would be the availability of the data to my disposition. Even though the purchase staff may not be aware of it, I believe that there will be an important mass of data at my disposal. Also, one of the others opportunity would be financial as I could never doubt that a company such as Pepsico would not have the sufficient budget for such an operation. On the other side, another issue, apart from the vendors could be time, as we have seen, important volumes are exchanged everyday. Therefore, Pepsico would need a very rapid answer and proposition to start saving money and minimize costs. I could not doubt finally, that the preliminary phase would not result in a "go" as I don't think any technical problem or incapacity would arise in the scope of the nature of the issue. Naturally, the enormous opportunity would be to initiate a systems development for Pepsico. Not only because I would be initiating such a program

Comparison & Contrast Between Two Online Holiday Companies Essay

Comparison & Contrast Between Two Online Holiday Companies - Essay Example This report stresses that lowcostholidays.com is essentially targeting the middle class families who look forward to travelling but have a very limited budget for the same. Kuoni.co.uk, on the other hand, has a different approach and a different feel to the website. The moment we get into the website, it gives a rich appeal and talks about luxury destinations, which clearly implicates their target market. Kouni.co.uk targets the upper class by offering luxury holidays packages with premium pricing which is not affordable by the average middle class families. This paper makes a conclusion that they are still successful with their physical promotion and presence and attract many customers who are looking for relaxations by travelling to some exotic locations. Lowcostholidays.com, on the other hand, is successful in their own way by doing significant online promotions and launching their exclusive application on facebook with the help of Betapond. They have successfully established themselves as low cost solution for travelers worldwide. Sticking to their current market and trying to capitalize on their target customers would help them to continuously be successful in their respective areas. The author of the report approves that since customer feedback is quite essential for the process, there is a rating prompt after every chat to enable the visitor comment on the level of service. This is very important for quality assurance purposes. It is also interesting to note that the company’ website is able to provide online booking and qu ote services. As a result, one does not have to visit Kuoni’s offices to be able to book for his or her preferred destination.

Explain Christian views on suicide Essay Example for Free

Explain Christian views on suicide Essay In a broad sense suicide can be defined as, â€Å"the act of intentionally ending your life.† However, there are many different types of suicide. Durkheim identified four kinds: egoistic suicide, which is the result of feeling one’s life is meaningless; altruistic suicide, the act of giving one’s life for the greater good; anomic suicide, the result of a major social change that disrupts a person’s sense of order; and fatalistic suicide, the results of excessive regulation, when one’s future is pitilessly blocked by oppressive discipline, such as in a prison or dictatorship. Christians believe that all life is sacred, and therefore the vast majority of denominations are against all forms of suicide. In examining the reasons behind this, a good place to start is the Christian teaching on the sacredness of human life. Christians believe in the sanctity of life, meaning that all human life is created in God’s image and has intrinsic worth. The Decalogue teaches, â€Å"Do not kill.† This includes killing oneself. Elsewhere in the Old Testament, Ecclesiastes 7:17 states, â€Å"Be not over much wicked, neither be you foolish: why should you die before your time?† Prematurely ending your life prevents the believer from serving God to his full potential. This idea is backed up in the New Testament, where the Apostle Paul writes in 1 Corinthians 3:16, â€Å"Know you not that you are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwells in you?† Christians reject the idea of total bodily autonomy, meaning that they do not believe we have the right to do whatever we want with our bodies. The Bible suggests that our bodies are not our own, but God’s, and therefore we do not have the right to destroy them. Historical church fathers have held consistently negative views on suicide. Augustine was one of the first to publically speak out against it. He opposed it because we have a duty of selfà ¢care arising from natural inclination and we have a debt of love that we owe to others. In The City of God he wrote, â€Å"certainly he who kills himself is a homicide, and so much guiltier of his own death, as he was more innocent of that offence for which he doomed himself to die.† To take one’s own life into one’s hands and act precipitously by committing suicide is to look away from God (a final and definitive refusal of trust in God and a denial of trust in his providence, by the very nature of the act itself excluding any subsequent repentance/penance). Furthermore, Aquinas was also against suicide. In Summa Theologica he set forth three reasons why suicide is immoral. Firstly, it is contrary to natural law. Secondly, suicide does injury to the common good because the person’s community will suffer. Thirdly, it is a sin against God because life is God’s gift to man. For it belongs to God alone to pronounce sentence of death and life, according to Deuteronomy 32:39, â€Å"I will kill and I will make to live.† However, there is one form of suicide that some Christians would accept, and that is altruistic suicide in the form of martyrdom or self-sacrifice. Jesus taught that, â€Å"Greater love has no-one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends.† For example, in Judges Samson brings down a temple killing both himself and the Philistines. Augustine said that suicide was rooted in pride and lack of charity, whereas martyrdom is commendable and for the good of others. The different Christian denominations are generally unified when it comes to views on suicide. In the Roman Catholic Church it is regarded as a mortal sin, and the Catechism asserts, Everyone is responsible for his life before God who has given it to him. It is God who remains the sovereign Master of life.† The Presbyterian Church would hold a similar view, as the Westminster Confession reads, â€Å"The sins forbidden in the sixth commandment are, all taking away the life of ourselves, or of others, except in the case of public justice, lawful war, or necessary defence.† Even though they clearly teach that suicide is a sin, it is not an unpardonable sin. Salvation is by grace alone and if one is truly saved, nothing (not even suicide) can separate them from Jesus. The United Methodist Church believes that suicide is not the way life should end, but would be hesitant to label it a sin. Therefore, they denounce the condemnation of people who commit suicide, and do not believe surviving family should be stigmatised. Modern psychology has impacted the Christian view of suicide. In the past Christians were guilty of separating physical and mental illness and although they were in support of treatment for physical ailments, they were wary of psychiatric treatment. Even today some fundamentalist churches would see illnesses such as depression as purely spiritual afflictions. In the wake of high profile suicides such as Rick Warren’s son Matthew, most leaders are encouraging the Church to acknowledge that matters of depression and suicide are medical in nature and should be addressed no differently than other physical illnesses. They imply that to do otherwise promotes stigma, shame and restricts the believer’s access to appropriate care. Another reason why Christians are against suicide is the profound negative effect it can have on other people. Suicide does not just harm the person who dies, it is a form of bereavement even more devastating than usual because the family will forever agonise over what led the person to take their life, and if they could have prevented it. This is especially so if the family discover the body or witness the suicide. Suicide can damage close communities such as schools and churches. Wyatt said that, â€Å"suicide can have devastating effects on others. In fact, it can be one of the most selfish and destructive acts anyone can perform.†

Effects of Zinc Deficiency

Effects of Zinc Deficiency INTRODUCTION Zinc is a trace mineral that plays an indispensable role for human health because of its critical structure in multiple enzymes that are involved in gene expression, cell development and replication (International Zinc Nutrition Consultative Group [IZiNCG], 2007). Aside from its unique and extensive role in biological processes, zinc is essential for physiological processes including growth and development, and brain and immune function (Ackland and Michalczyk, 2006). More than 85% of total body zinc is found in skeletal muscle and bone (National Health and Medical Research Council [NHMRC], 2006) as well as in the brain that plays a central role in the production of enzymes essential for RNA and DNA synthesis (Black, 1998). Zinc deficiency affects, on average, one-third of the world’s population ranging from 4 to 73% in different countries (Hotz and Brown, 2004). It has been estimated that zinc deficiency is responsible for deaths of nearly 450,000 children under age 5 years old annually (Black et al, 2008). Similarly, zinc deficiency is accounted for 16% lower respiratory tract infections, 18% of malaria and 10% of diarrheal disease and more than 28 million aggregates to loss of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). In total, 1.4% (0.8 million) of deaths worldwide were attributable to zinc deficiency: 1.4% in males and 1.5% in females (WHO, 2012). Zinc deficiency is defined by short stature, hypogonadism, impaired immune function, skin disorders, cognitive dysfunction and anorexia (Prasad, 1991). Zinc deficiency is uncommon but a widespread problem across the globe (Ackland and Michalczyk, 2006). It has far-reaching consequences, playing a contributory role to stunted growth in children (Brown et al., 2001) and causing abnormal cerebellar function and damage of behavioural and emotional responses (Henkin, 1975) in addition to morbidity from diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria (Shankar, 2000). Therefore, zinc deficiency compromises the development of children worldwide and is a veritable public health concern (Gibson, 2005). Background of the Study Micronutrients have been scientifically and technically discovered to improve the overall well-being of an individual and that deficiencies can cause a range of health and developmental problem. Zinc is one of the micronutrients that promote immunity, resistance to infection as well as growth and development of the nervous system. Zinc deficiency can lead to more frequent infections, reduce children’s ability to fight and survive disease, and impair mental capacity. These risks remain serious as children grow and develop because they cannot learn as well, and lose school days due to illness. Later in adulthood, it negatively affects physical energy and, therefore, productivity. Reduced intellectual capacity undermines investments in education and perpetuates cycles of poverty, which is a significant barrier to achieve economic growth and improved standards of living. In addition, intellectual ability is affected by iron which affects work capacity, physical and cognitive performance (Global Report, 2009). Zinc has the primary focus of scientific investigations related to linear growth which is intimately connected to nutrition. As a manifestation of chronic undernutrition, stunting has been linked to multiple adverse health outcomes that extend beyond childhood into adult life (Souganidis, 2012). Recent evidences also suggest that zinc deficiency may be associated with deficits in activity, attention, and motor development that commonly occur in nutritionally deficient children (Souganidis, 2012) because it contributes to the structure and function of the brain (Black, 1998). According to the World Bank (2012), the Philippines ranks 48th out of 136 countries in terms of the prevalence of stunting and 32% of Filipinos are at risk for insufficient zinc intake. Generally, zinc status is of high magnitude (>20%) among infants and preschool children (6 months to 5 years), female adolescents (13 to 19 years), older persons (20 to Statement of the Problem Zinc deficiency has been a major micronutrient problem in the Philippines. It has been associated with linear growth and cognitive development. Zinc has also been related to iron due to their inhibitory factor with one another. The effect of zinc on physical growth occurs during the first 2 years of life with association to high rates of infection, inadequate nutrition and cognitive deficits. The following questions were highlighted in the study to examine the association of zinc status to nutritional status, iron status and cognitive development as well as possible risk factors of zinc deficiency in 2 to 3 year old children in Laguna, Philippines. What are the socio-economic and demographic characteristics, water and sanitation practices, health services, child care and feeding practices of mothers? What are the food intake and nutrient adequacy of children? What is the nutritional status, zinc status and iron status of children? What is the level of cognitive development of children? What is the degree of association between zinc status and the following variables: water and sanitation practices, and health services; child care and feeding practices, and food intake; nutritional status; iron status; and cognitive development? Hypothesis of the Study The following were the research hypothesis that guided the study: Water and sanitation practices are associated with nutritional status. Health services are associated with nutritional status. Infection is associated with nutritional status and cognitive development. Food intake is associated with nutritional status and cognitive development. Weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height are associated with zinc status, iron status and cognitive development. Zinc status is associated with iron status and cognitive development Iron status is associated with cognitive development. Objectives of the Study Generally, this study aimed to determine the Zinc status and its relationship to physical growth and cognitive development of 2 to 3 year old children in Laguna, Philippines. It specifically sought to: describe the socio-economic and demographic characteristics; water and sanitation practices; health services; and child care and feeding practices of mothers; evaluate the food intake and nutrient adequacy; assess the nutritional status, zinc status and iron status; determine the level of cognitive development; and examine the association of zinc status with each of the following variables: water and sanitation practices; health services; child care and feeding practices, and food intake; nutritional status; iron status; and cognitive development. Significance of the Study The province of Laguna has been consistent in the implementation of nutrition programs. The nutrition sector has been conducting nutritional assessment to address the magnitude and severity of malnutrition particularly, of under and overnutrition in the province. However, zinc deficiency, as one of the public health concerns, and its multifactorial causes have not yet been given attention. With limited researches, the assessment of zinc status provided a deep understanding of the consequences of stunting and iron status as well as its contributory effect to cognitive development of 2 to 3 year old children. The results of the study shall provide local government units, program planners and policy makers with significant inputs for relevant programs; suggested and recommended effective nutrition strategies to local nutrition and health workers; and imparted to nutrition and nutrition-related professionals knowledge and awareness on micronutrient deficiencies, particularly of zinc. Scope and Limitations of the Study The study focused on the assessment of physical growth, zinc status, iron status and cognitive development of 2 to 3 year old children in the province of Laguna. Factors affecting child nutritional status included were to socio-economic and demographic characteristics, health, water and sanitation practices, child care and feeding practices and dietary intake. Contributory factor to nutritional status such as infection was also included. The criteria in selecting the study area and the profile of the province were limited to the availability of secondary data. The sample size was based from the 2013 Operation Timbang (OPT) list which may not include all children with ages 24 to 35 months old. Data on child morbidity was limited to personal interview of mother-respondents. Likewise, dietary assessment was limited to a non-consecutive 2-day food recall which may not indicate foods that are highly seasonal. Determination of cognitive development was also limited to the adapted items of the Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) program, Metro Manila Developmental Screening Test (MMDST), and Child Development Index (CDI). The sample size may not be able to reflect the entire population of 2 to 3 year old Filipino children. However, the sample size was sufficient to test the statistical significance of the study. The conclusions were made from the results of the study. Hence, it was limited to the conditions inherent to the selected children.

Definitions And Theories of Teamwork

Definitions And Theories of Teamwork Definition: group cohesion is a dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its goals. Stages of development There are four stages of development a group will go through but the time it takes to go through each stage is variable. These stages are: Forming Storming Norming Performing Forming This is when everybody meets for the first time and starts to get to know each other. This stage can be used to test whether or not the team can gel together properly or not. In a team situation the coach may use small games or strategies to break the ice between the new group members. This can also be explained as the stage where new team mates get together for the first time in search of a common goal or cause. Storming In this stage each individual is fighting for there place in the team therefore it can be a stage of very intense intergroup competition. This intense competition may include rebellion against the leader, conflict between individuals or resistance to the way the team is being developed or managed and the tactics that are being adopted. Norming The players now begin to realise that they are all there aiming for the same goals and therefore either agree on a way of getting on in order to achieve these goals or they leave the group. Now the group starts to cooperate and work together to reach their common goals. The group now pulls together and the roles are established and become more stable. Performing This is the stage where the relationship between the players is well established and they all pull together with the aim to achieve their common goals. Issues of leadership and strategies are well established and agreed upon. When a new player joins the group a new stage of storming and norming will occur and the new players will either be accepted or rejected. This refreshing of the team can be a good shake up as it prevents the team from going stale. Successful teams seem to be settled and take in two or three new players a year to keep the team fresh but the introduction of too many players can disrupt the team and change the nature of the group completely. A good example of this is Manchester united in the 1990s where an influx of youngsters came up through the youth teams and the reserves to the first team. They had already been through the norming stage therefore they knew what norms were expected of them, this is why they achieved so much so quickly. They brought in two or three players each year to keep the team fresh and to help develop the team. The team started to decline in 2001/02 when they signed Juan Sebastian Veron as he was seen to disrupt the group dynamics and reduce the teams effectiveness. Social/task cohesion In sport different teams may have different skill levels therefore team cohesiveness may be the difference between two teams that might mak the difference between winning and losing. There are two types of cohesiveness. Social cohesion Task cohesion Social cohesion can be defined as a general orientation towards developing and maintaining social relationships within a group. (Carron, Widmeyer, Brawley, 1985) Task cohesion can be defined as a general orientation towards achieving a groups goals and objectives. (Carron, Widmeyer, Brawley, 1985) In sports coaches and players, coaches especially, should be more concerned with task cohesion than with social cohesion. An increase in task cohesion can help lead to success. This can be achieved by setting goals. This goal setting can play a major role in the development of the teams task cohesion and it will lead to the development of the players skills. Success is also important in the accomplishment of team cohesion. This success doesnt have to be winning it can also come in the form of achieving goals that have been set by the team. Goals can help significantly in the development of task cohesion. A good example of a team that has good task cohesion but no social cohesion is the New York Yankees team of the 1970s when they were constantly bickering but they still went on to win the world series several times. The more success a team experiences, the higher the cohesion. (Bird, 1977; Carron, 1982).http://www.fcbarcelona.com/imagenes/jugadores/futbol/Partidos/Liga-2005-06/Betis-FCB/240905_CronikaAlegria.jpg Carron (1982, 1988) model of cohesion Albert Carron came up with a system for studying cohesion within sport. This system looks at four areas: Environmental Personal Leadership Team factors Environmental This refers to the normal factors which hold a team together eg contracts and scholarships. Other factors include age and geographic closeness. Having team members of the same age living in the same area increases the opportunities for interaction and communication between the group. The size of the group will also affect cohesion because of the manufacturing of cliques. Smaller groups always tend to be more cohesive than larger groups. Personal This is in relation to each person within the group; there are major differences between each individual in the group. Carron has split personal factors into 3 separate groups: Demographic attributes eg gender Cognitions and motives eg anxiety Behaviour eg ability to follow rules Leadership This refers to the leadership and behaviour. The role of leaders is important in team cohesion in offering communication towards team goals. Another factor is the relationship between the team and the coach as a good relationship will ensure a more cohesive group. Team This includes desire for group success, group roles, group position and team stability. Carron believed that the longer a team have together and also have a desire for success show higher levels of cohesion. Shared experiences of success or failure are also essential in developing cohesion within the group, as it brings the team closer together. Model of Cohesion Cohesion and performance, what comes first? There have been numerous studies showing that there is a relationship between team cohesiveness and success. The better the team the more cohesive the team. What research has not shown whether or not these successful teams performed well because of the cohesiveness of the team or is the team cohesive because they have shared the experiences of winning. Both of these explanations may be correct. Slater and Sewell (1994) measured team cohesion in sixty university level hockey players representing three male and three female teams, early, midway and at the end of the season. This research has shown that early success resulted in late cohesion and early success resulted in late success. Slater and Sewell (1994) concluded that while early success related to later cohesiveness, the stronger relationship was between early cohesiveness and later success. They proposed that cohesiveness and success were mutually dependant. High cohesiveness Greater success Higher cohesiveness Low cohesiveness Less success Lower cohesiveness As you can see from the above model, the cohesiveness of a team early on in the season affects the success of the team which in turn affects the cohesiveness of the team later in the season. This study shows why one of the main priorities of a coach is to develop a highly cohesive team. Team cohesion is shown to be related to a teams success on the field. Although many studies have found that a teams cohesion was related to is subsequent performance, many other studies found that team cohesion had very little to do with how successful the team became. Success is related to the type of cohesion that exists within the team. More specifically, if your team has a high level of task cohesion, meaning that they play well together and remain united in the pursuit of the teams goals, then they are more likely to enjoy success. On the other hand, having a high amount of social cohesion, meaning that the team members are good friends and that they enjoy each others company, means very little in the way of predicting your teams performance. It has even been found that teams who are high in social cohesion play worse as a team. The key is not necessarily that your team members like each other, but that they are united in their efforts to achieve the team goals set forth at the beginning of the season. Higher levels of team (task) cohesion appear to be related to team success as the season progresses, and as the team becomes more successful, the degree of team cohesion appears to increase as well. Some might say the relationship between team cohesion and team success is a circular system. As team cohesion improves, so does the teams performance, and as the teams performance improves, it becomes more and more cohesive.It also appears that the link between a teams performance and its subsequent cohesion is stronger than the link between the teams initial cohesion and their performance early on in the season. The answer, according to previous studies in sport psychology, to the question whether performance or cohesion comes first, is both. http://www.baseballnews.com/features/teamchemistry.htm Building an effective team and developing cohesiveness Team cohesion is shown to be one of the most important factors in a successful team therefore is of vital importance that the coach encourages team cohesion, especially in societies such as Britain and the USA where people can be very self centred and dont care about the team. Coaches therefore figure out strategies to bring the team together, this is known as team building. Carron et al. (1997) came up with the following steps for team building. Each player should be acquainted with the responsibilities of the other team members. As coach, learn something personal about each team member and use it to gain cooperation. Gain pride in the sub teams within larger teams e.g. the defence Involve players in decision making to make them feel the team belongs to them. Set the team goals and celebrate when they are attained. Teach each team member their responsibilities and convince them of their individual importance. Allow team members to have disagreements. Prevent the formation of cliques within the team, by giving every member opportunities to perform and avoiding scapegoating. Use routines in practice designed to teach team members how dependant they are on each other. Highlight the positive aspects of play, even when the team is on a losing streak. Leadership in sport Definition: leadership can be defined as the behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups towards set goals. (Barrow, 1997) Trait theory of leadership Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders. In the 1920s researchers tried to show that characteristics were common to all leaders therefore to be a good leader you had to have these qualities inbuilt when you are born. This means that a person who is a good leader in one situation is a good leader in any situation. McCall and Lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified four primary traits by which leaders could succeed or derail: Emotional stability and composure: Calm, confident and predictable, particularly when under stress. Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than putting energy into covering up. Good interpersonal skills: Sble to communicate and persuade others without resort to negative or coercive tactics. Intellectual breadth: Able to understand a wide range of areas, rather than having a narrow (and narrow-minded) area of expertise. McCall and Lombardo (1983) Stogdill (1974) identified the following traits and skills as critical to leaders. Skills Adaptable to situations Alert to social environment Ambitious and achievement-orientated Assertive Cooperative Decisive Dependable Dominant (desire to influence others) Energetic (high activity level) Persistent Self-confident Tolerant of stress Willing to assume responsibility Clever (intelligent) Conceptually skilled Creative Diplomatic and tactful Fluent in speaking Knowledgeable about group task Organised (administrative ability) Persuasive Socially skilled Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) identified eight characteristics which are associated with successful leadership. They are: drive, honesty, motivation to lead, self-confidence, intelligence, expertise in the purpose of the group, creativity and flexibility. Kirkpatrick and Locke then concluded that inspirational leaders do not need to be great men or women by being intellectual geniuses or omniscient prophets but they do need to have the right stuff and this stuff isnt equally present in all people Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) Behavioural theory This theory states that anybody can be a good leader by learning the behaviour of an effective leader therefore this theory says that the qualities of a good leader can be learned and developed through training and experience, contradictory to the trait theory this one is saying that good leaders are made and not born. As early researchers ran out of information in their research in personal traits of leaders, they turned to what leaders did, how they behaved and especially towards their followers. They moved from leaders to leadership and this became the dominant way of approaching leadership in the 1950s and early 1960s. Different patterns of behaviour were grouped together and labelled as styles. A variety of schemes appeared, designed to identify and develop peoples style of working. Despite different names for these schemes, the basic ideas were very similar. The four main styles that appear are: Â · Concern for task. Here leaders put emphasis on the achievement of concrete objectives (achievement of goals). They look for high levels of productivity, and ways to organize people and activities in order to meet those objectives. Â · Concern for people. In this style, leaders look upon their followers as people and can identify their needs, interests, problems, development and so on and be able to work around these to get the best out of them. They are not simply units of production or means to an end. Â · Directive leadership. This style is characterized by leaders making decisions for others and expecting followers to follow instructions, such as a team captain on the pitch giving instructions to the rest of the players on the field. Â · Participative leadership. Here leaders try to share decision-making with the rest of the players but when the need arises that a decision has to be made quickly then his attention turns back to directive leadership. Many of the early researchers that looked to participative and people-centred leadership argued that it brought about greater satisfaction amongst followers. However, as Sadler (1997) reports, when researchers really got to work on this it didnt seem to stand up. There were lots of differences and inconsistencies between studies. It was difficult to say style of leadership was significant in enabling one group to work better than another. The main problem may have been one shared with those who looked for traits. The researchers did not look properly at the context or setting which the style was used in. Is it possible that the same style would work as well in a group of friends? The styles that leaders can adopt are far more affected by those they are working with, and the environment they are working within, than had been originally thought. Interactional approach The interactional approach looks at the interaction between the person and the situation rather than the personality of the leader. This approach stresses the following points: Effective leaders cant be predicted solely on personality. Effective leadership fits specific situations, as some leaders function better in certain circumstances than others. Leadership style needs to change to suit the situation A good example of the way this theory works is; relationship orientated leaders develop interpersonal relationships, provide god communication and ensure everyone is feeling good within the group. However, task orientated leaders are concerned with getting the work done and meeting objectives. Stafford Browne et el. (2003) Critics argued that the continued focus on the leader, rather than the situation where leadership takes place, provided a limited view of leadership. This is why an interactional approach to leadership was developed. This took into account the leader, the situation at the time, the type of people who are being led and the interaction between them. This interactional approach is examined in the work of both Fiedler and Chelladurai. Fred E. Fiedlers contingency theory says that there is no best way for managers to lead. Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager. The solution to a managerial situation is reliant on the factors that are imposed on the situation. E.g. a coach may have to act on a situation such as player getting injured. He/she must get the suitable replacement. This is not planned it is an unexpected situation that has arisen and must be dealt with. (Woods 2001) Fiedlers Contingency model Fiedlers model assumes that group performance depends on: Leadership style, described in terms of task motivation and relationship motivation. Situational favourableness, determined by three factors: 1. Leader-member relations Degree to which a leader is accepted and supported by the group members. 2. Task structure Extent to which the task is structured and defined, with clear goals and procedures. 3. Position power The ability of a leader to control subordinates through reward and punishment. High levels of these three factors give the most favourable situation, low levels, the least favourable. Relationship-motivated leaders are most effective in moderately favourable situations. Task-motivated leaders are most effective at either end of the scale. Fiedler suggests that it may be easier for leaders to change their situation to achieve effectiveness, rather than change their leadership style. A good example of this approach was with Brian Mc Eniff when he won the 1992 All Ireland final with Donegal but has failed to do so since with rows in the camp between mentors and players. The leader was powerful but the relationship wasnt warm therefore pressure took its toll and he had to resign. Multidimensional model of sport leadership In 1978 Chelladurai proposed a multidimensional model of leadership developed on the basis of leadership theories and their effectiveness. Performance outcomes and satisfaction could be achieved by effective leader behaviours. This means that if things arent going particularly well the leader must stand and be counted and motivate his players to succeed. In this case the coach has to be able to change his leadership style to suit the situation. This model says that if a leader behaves appropriately for the particular situation and these behaviours match the preferences of the group then they will achieve their goals. The model Antecedents Leader behaviour Consequences 4. required behaviour 1. situational characteristics 7. performance satisfaction 5. actual behaviour 2. leader characteristics 6. preferred behaviour 3. member characteristics Situational characteristics The characteristics of the situation the group is in such as; size, type of sport or winning or losing, Leader characteristics The personal qualities of the leader such as; confidence, intelligence, assertiveness and self-motivation. Member characteristics The different personalities of different types of athletes such as; age, gender, ability and experience. Required behaviour The type of characteristics required from a leader in a particular situation. For example if a team is losing with 5mins to go, is it better for the leader to make the decision himself or discuss it with the group? Actual behaviour This is the behaviour the leader actually displays Preferred behaviour The preferred leadership of the team depending on the situation. Performance satisfaction This is the extent to which the team is satisfied with the performance of the group under this leader. A good example of this approach was with Brian Kerr when he was in charge of the Irish soccer team. He had a mix of different approaches between autocratic and democratic. Normally he was democratic with his more senior players making decisions and enforcing leadership. When things werent going to plan though he stepped in as the autocratic leader to set things right again. Leadership styles There are a number of different leadership styles that I will look at, some more successful than others. The different types of leader are; Autocratic authoritarian Democratic leadership Laissez faire Autocratic authoritarian This type of leader dictates to the group, he doesnt ask for advice, comments or ideas from the group. He is the one who makes all of the decisions. This leadership style has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are that the members of the group can be directed towards purposeful actions even when stressed and exhausted. The disadvantage is that wise group members do not have the chance to input useful information into the group and thus they may find it difficult to motivate themselves. Democratic leadership This type of leadership encourages the involvement of the whole group as individuals and as a group. Participants are encouraged to give feedback, ideas and to help make decisions. If the group leader were to be absent then the group would be efficient enough to continue what they were doing on their own. The bad side of this style is that it can cause trouble when decisions need to be made quickly in an emergency. This type of leadership is usually the most successful. Laissez faire This style of leadership encourages group independence in the sense that the group makes their own decisions, the leader only gets involved when the group gets into difficulties or in cases of emergency. Lewin (1939) found that this type of group tended to become more aggressive with each other when things went wrong. Leaders in this type of group often fail to motivate the members of the group and fail to deal with a crisis.

Atmosphere of Terror and Suspense in Gothic Literature Essay -- essays

1764 saw the birth of Gothic literature with the novel 'The Castle of Otranto', written by Horace Walpole. Although, this novel was based on some much earlier literature it set the standard for all the gothic novels that followed. The 18th century was a time when political power was in the hands of a few rich men. Women did not have the vote, let alone any legal rights. The majority of the population lived in poverty. However things were changing ? the Church was no longer as powerful and the social structure was being questioned. For example, in 1789 the French monarchy was overthrown by the masses starting the French revolution. People were no longer so willing to accept their ?lot in life?. It was in this background that the genre of Gothic literature was first written. It was called gothic because it placed emphasis on emotions such as awe, terror, insignificance and vulnerability. Gothic novels were fascinated with the grotesque, horrible and supernatural. They were a reaction against realistic literature of the 18th century. Some saw it as a sub-genre of romantics but others argued it was a genre in its own right. Whatever its genre, gothic novels were typically characterized by their romanticism, melodrama and dark foreboding settings. They were critical of the society of the day and fiercely anti- catholic, disliking the church?s power and brutality. Some of the main gothic writers of the time included Edgar Alan Poe, Charles Dickens, H.G.Wells, Charlotte and Emily Bronte. By the end of the19th century Mary Shelley?s famous novel of Frankenstein had been published and later on Bram Stoker?s Dracula. Of all the stories written in the gothic era, they all contain many of the typical gothic ... ...ation and descriptive language. Also, with The Tell Tale Heart the tension and suspense has great effect, making the reader wanting to read on. The building of suspense through specific language and literary devices is so firm and efficient that ?The Tell-Tale Heart? has become one of the most famous Gothic short stories in English literature. Poe?s choice of words is known to be precise and concise, and so is his writing style: no devices are used without having certain effects. The Cask of Amontillado is the least representative of the genre because it does not contain so many gothic features and the narrator has a reason for killing: revenge. I believe gothic literature has remained so popular because people like to be thrilled by horror and ghost stories and the central themes never age. The reader can empathise with the story without having to believe it.

The Euro :: Essays Papers

The Euro In Europe, the debut of the euro is widely hailed as the most important event affecting the international monetary landscape since the breakup of the Bretton Woods System in 1971 to 1973, or since the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944, or maybe even since the founding of the Federal Reserve System in 1913. It has become a contest for European officials and commentators to see who can push the analogy back furthest in time. Eminences elsewhere in the world have similarly greeted the euro with high hopes and great expectations. Only in the United States has the euro been greeted with a yawn. It is not hard to see why. So far, its advent has not weakened the international financial position of the dollar; if anything the opposite has been true. The dollar has been strong against the euro rather than weak; for much of last autumn the fear was that the euro, which had started out being worth well more than a dollar, might plunge through the dreaded psychological barrier of one to one. There has been no sign of Asian and Latin American central banks replacing their dollars with euros en masse, as prominent commentators had predicted. The United States has not had to change the way it does business at Group of Seven summits, the OECD, or the IMF. Many Americans thus cannot help but feel that the euro is a tempest in a teapot. The Euro's Slow Start Perhaps Asian and Latin American central banks have been waiting to dump their dollars until the euro stabilizes. Through much of 1999 the euro was weak because the European economy was weak; governments and private investors were understandably reluctant to overweight a currency that seemed to be losing value by the day. Investors were slow to move into euros because they thought that Europe was less well prepared than the United States for Y2K. They worried about the stability of the European banking system because European banks had lent much more aggressively than their American counterparts to Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia a nd Thailand. But now that European growth is finally accelerating, the euro could strengthen, and the anticipated shift into euros at last could get under way. Perhaps governments and investors have been reluctant to embrace the euro because of a series of missteps by the European Central Bank. In the early months of 1999, ECB officials issued a series of confusing and contradictory statements, and on several occasions the ECB board's decision on whether or not to raise interest rates leaked to the press in advance of the official announcement.

Are Computers a Hindrance?

Write about the following topic:Some people consider computers to be more of a hindrance than a help. Others believe that they have greatly increased human potential. How could computers be considered a hindrance? Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own experience. Write at least 250 words. Look at the words or phrases in capitals. Correct your version where necessary. It is easy to understand why some people believe that computers are more of a hindrance than a help. Operations such as obtaining a refund or changing a ticket tend to be fairly straightforward without the aid of a computer, yet once one is involved, the process can become time-consuming, complex and prone to errors. In an office environment, it can sometimes seem that for every hour saved by computers, at least set of problems caused by a system malfunction. Another consideration is that, over-enthusiastic use of computers in the home has the potential to divert large amounts of free time away from activities such as socialising, tasking exercise or having dinner with your family. Spending a lot of leisure time looking at a computer monitor screen could perhaps achieving other goals in life, such as being healthy and socially integrated. However, it would be simplistic to assert that computers have a generally negative impact. There have been enormous advences in communications, medicine, design, education and numerous fields of human endeavour. Nowadays, virtually the entire sum of human knowledge is as far away as the nearest internet point. Computers have brought about a profound change in the way most people inthe developed world live. (Although it should not be forgotten that the majority of the inhabitants of this planet have never so much as touched a computer keyboard. ) The benefits of computers undoubtedly outweigh the disadventages. The question is not whethercomputers help or hinder, but whether people always use their huge potential in a sensible and responsible way?

Does the government do enough to punish cyber-attacks & criminals?

1.0 Introduction Cyber-attacks have become a significant problem for information systems (IS) worldwide. When referring to information systems, the term cyber-attack is used for denoting a malicious action that aims to result to specific benefit, usually financial, and which is developed through online routes as available in the Internet (Vacca, 2009). In the UK, the expansion of cyber-crime has been quite rapid the last few years leading to severe financial losses for the victims, individuals and businesses (Cabinet Office, 2011). The graph in Figure 1 shows the cost of the various types of cyber – crime to the UK economy. This paper explores the effectiveness of measures taken by the UK government in regard to the punishment of cyber-crime, aiming to show whether the current initiatives for the UK government for punishing the cyber-crime are sufficient or not. The paper also explains the key characteristics and the value of information systems (IS) security so that the potential of the UK go vernment to secure safety from cyber-crimes is evaluated. I will argue that the UK government does not enough to punish cyber-attacks and criminals. Moreover, the introduction by the government of stricter punishment for cyber-attacks has not resulted to the limitation of this type of crime, as explained below. Figure 1 – Cost of different types of cyber – crime to the UK economy (Cabinet Office, 2011, p.2) 2.0 Security of IS – characteristics and importance Security, as a term, can be related to different fields. In the context of information technology, the term security is used for describing ‘a power system’s degree of risk in its ability to survive imminent disturbances without interruption of customer service’ (Cuzzocrea et al., 2013, p.244). As for the term ‘IT security’, this term refers to three values/ characteristics of an IT system, such as: ‘confidentiality, integrity and availability’ (Katsikas, 2016, p.28). According to Mehdi (2014), the term IS security denotes ‘the protection of IS against unauthorized access’ (p.4310). It is explained that a secure IS can ensure that its data will not be modified or lost (Mehdi, 2014). Also, such system is able to detect early any security threat activating appropriate protection mechanisms (Merkow, 2010). At organizational level, IS security is ensured by using an IS security policy, i.e. a set of rules referring to the securit y standards that would apply in all IS of the organisation involved (Kim and Solomon, 2016). However, the demands of such policy can be many, a fact which is justified if considering the several types of IS threats (Cabinet Office, 2011; Figure 1). Organisations often need to hire an Information System Security Officer (ISSO) for ensuring IS security (Kovachich, 2016). 3.0 The punishment of cyber-attacks and criminals – government initiatives and effects3.1 Laws and policies focusing on IS security In the UK, the first law addressing cyber – crimes appeared in 1990 and aimed to cover the gaps of existing legislation in regard to the protection of IT systems from cyber-attacks (Emm, 2009). This was the 1990 Computer Misuse Act. The introduction in the UK of a legislative text focusing on cyber-attacks has been highly related to a cyber-attack incident: the unauthorized access, by two cyber-attackers, to BT’s Prestel service in 1984 (Emm, 2009). When dealing with the above case, the court used the 1981 Forgery and Counterfeiting Act, due to the lack of a legislative text focusing on computer-related crimes (Emm, 2009). In May of 2015, the Serious Crime Act 2015 came into action (Eversheds-Sutherland, 2015). The articles 41 up to 44 of the above law introduced stricter punishment for cyber-crimes. More specifically, in the context of the 1990 Computer Misuse Act the imprisonment for serious cyber-crimes could not exceed the 10 years. With the 2015 Act, the imprisonment for cyber-crimes has been significantly increased, reaching the 14 years and even, the life sentence in cases of cyber-crimes threatening national security (Eversheds-Sutherland, 2015). This, stricter, punishment for cyber-crimes could discourage cyber-criminals but only if the enforcement of the law was appropriately supported, so that all cases of cyber-crimes are brought before the courts (White, 2016). The National Cyber Security Strategy (CSS) of 2011 has been an effort of the British government to control cyber-crime (Shefford, 2015). The Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) is a national team that was established in 2014 for helping towards the achievement of the objectives of CSS (Cabinet Office, 2014, p.13). The CERT team provides to organisations in the private and the public sector critical information for the protection from cyber-attacks (Cabinet Office, 2014). Additionally, in the context of CSS, educational initiatives focusing on cyber security are developed by institutions across the UK; these initiatives are funded by the government and aim to achieve two targets: First, to increase the awareness of the public in regard to cyber security. Second, to help individuals to acquire skills which are necessary for supporting cyber security and for facing cyber-attacks (Cabinet Office, 2014; Figure 2). The Cyber Security Challenge (CSC) is a programme developed by the UK g overnment for helping young people to understand the risks from using their cyber skills in the wrong way; the programme includes competitions and other schemes that can motivate young people to use their cyber skills in a proactive way and not for the commitment of cyber – crimes (National Crime Agency, 2017). Figure 1 – Initiatives/ measures of the National CSS for facing cyber-crime (Cabinet Office, 2014, p.22)3.2 Cyber-attack incidents in governmental and non-governmental organisationsThe number of cyber-attacks against governmental and non-governmental organisations in the UK is continuously increased (White, 2016). From January to October of 2016, 75 cyber-attacks have been reported against banks in the UK, while in 2014 these attacks were just five (White, 2016). In 2013, three individuals in Britain were convicted to jail, from 6 months up to 22 months, for unauthorised access of sensitive private data stored in ‘PayPal, Visa and Mastercard’ (McTague, 2014). The above punishment was considered as too soft compared to the seriousness of the crime. In 2014, the government decided to initiate the modification of existing punishment for cyber-crimes, so that future perpetrators are discouraged from committing a cyber-crime (McTague, 2014). Pultarova (2016) argued tha t banks in the UK face cyber-attacks quite regularly but they avoid reporting the specific incidents trying to protect their market image. In November of 2016, Chancellor P. Hammond noted that critical infrastructure units of the UK, such as airports and gas facilities, are threatened by ‘cyber-attacking techniques developed by other countries’ (BBC News, 2016). It was noted that the protection from such attacks would be a priority for the UK in order for the country’s security, at national level, to be ensured (BBC News, 2016). In 2011 the general police officer in the e-crime department of Scotland-Yard argued that the punishment of cyber – crimes in the UK is too soft if considering the actual damage that these crimes cause (BBC News, 2011). It was explained that the annual damage on the UK economy from cyber-crimes reaches the ?27bn (BBC News, 2011). In 2016, the National Crime Agency of the UK published a report for showing the status of cyber-crimes, in terms of occurrence/ rate of appearance. According to the above report, the cyber – crime represents a major part of criminal activity in the UK, reaching the 36% among all crimes developed in the UK. At the same time, the crimes related to computer misuse reached the 17% among the country’s total crimes (National Crime Agency, 2016). The above figures and facts indicate the inability of the UK government to control cyber-crime. The introduction in 2015 of stricter punishment for cyber-crimes has been an important initiative by the UK government for controlling cyber-crime. However, this initiative should be combined with other measures, at national and at community level. In a speech in mid-February of 2017, Chancellor P. Hammond noted that in the previous three months a total of 188 severe cyber-attacks had been reported; these attacks aimed to cause severe damage to governmental services, infrastructure and businesses (Cole, 2017). A similar issue has been raised by Lord West of Spithead who noted in 2010 that in 2009 the UK had to face ‘300 significant attacks’ on the IS of the government (Doward, 2010). According to Lord West, this problem had become quite serious, denoting that the UK had been targeted by cyber criminals worldwide, as these attacks seemed to be supported by foreign governments, as Lord West noted (Doward, 2010). The above arguments verify the existence of gaps in the existing national framework for the protection from cyber-attacks, as this framework constitutes the national legislation and national policy for the control of cyber – crime. The facts presented above further verify the inability of the UKâ€℠¢s policy to reduce the occurrence of cyber-crime. Guitton (2012) developed an experiment, using data related to cyber-attacks that occurred between 2003 and 2010 in businesses located in three European countries: Germany, UK and France. It was revealed that the relationship between attribution and deterrence is strong only in cases of individuals of individuals who are aware of the existing legislation for cyber-crime and who can realise the actual effects of their actions. These individuals represented the 1/3 of the cases reviewed by Guitton (2012). In opposition, it was found that most individuals involved in cyber-crimes are not fully aware of the relevant legislation and they tend to ignore the effects of their actions. For these individuals, the control theory which emphasises on the power of attribution, as held by the state, to ensure deterrence is not applied, as Guitton (2012) argued. In the context of the above study, the potential of the British government to control cyber-crime is limited. This fact, even it would be ac cepted, could not affect the view on the government’s efforts to confront cyber-crime. The update of the terms of punishment of cyber-crimes just in 2015 and the lack of effective control mechanisms for identifying and reporting cyber – attacks verify the failure of the government to ensure the punishment of cyber-attacks and criminals. 4.0 Conclusion and Recommendations It is concluded that the UK government does not make enough to punish cyber-attacks and criminals. First, a significant delay has been identified in the introduction of appropriate/ fair penalties. Indeed, the introduction of strict punishment for cyber-crimes took place just in 2015, as explained above. The facts and views presented in this paper lead to the assumption that for many years, the government has avoided confronting cyber-attacks as a criminal activity, a fact that led to the radical increase of cyber-attacks against IS systems in governmental services and in financial institutions. At the same time, IS security has several aspects, meaning that eliminating cyber – crime is rather impossible. The soft punishment framework for cyber-crimes, as used in the past, has led to the severe deterioration of the problem across the UK. The increase of effectiveness of current legislation, as from May 2015, on cyber-attacks could be achieved through certain practices, such a s: First, events and seminars would be organized at community level for informing individuals on the characteristics of cyber-attacks and the available measures for protection; these seminars would also provide guidelines to entrepreneurs in regard to the value of IS security policy, as part of business strategy. Second, incentives would be provided to entrepreneurs for pursuing the certification of their business according to the information security management standards, such as the ISO/IEC 27000 standards. Third, an independent authority would be established for controlling the performance of governmental and non-governmental organisations in regard to IS safety. Finally, the investment on IS security in governmental and non-governmental organisations would be increased. Security frameworks, such as the ‘Intrusion Detection System’ (IDS), could be employed in these organisations for ensuring IS security in IS systems that manage and store high volume of private data (Stair and Reynolds, 2015, p.460). 5.0 Personal reflections This project has been related to a critical issue: the findings in regard to the study’s subject have been contradictory. More specifically, the UK government has tried to confront cyber-attacks through legislation and relevant policies but the punishment for these crimes has been characterised as soft, at least up to 2015, while the number of cyber-attacks in the UK is continuously increased. Under these terms, I had to face a dilemma: how should the performance of the UK government in facing cyber-crime would be evaluatedBy referring to the initiatives taken or by emphasising on the actual results of these initiativesReflection has helped me to face the above problem. Indeed, reflection can help the researcher to have ‘an objective sense of things’ (Gillett et al., 2013, 85). Moreover, using reflection I tried to estimate the balance between the positive and negative aspects of government’s efforts to punish cyber-crime and to understand which aspect of t he government’s strategy against cyber-crime is more related to the research question: this paper aims to explain whether the government has done enough on the punishment of cyber-crime. Through reflection, I understood that the occurrence of cyber-attacks in the UK should be preferred as the criterion for answering the research question. Ventola and Mauranen (1996) explained that reflection can help the researcher to identify the research findings that are closer to the research question, a fact that allows the researcher to use the right material for answering the research question. Additionally, I used reflection during the development of the study for managing time and for tracking research gaps, which have been covered after the completion of the project. The above tasks have been supported by a research diary (Day, 2013), in the form of notes, where daily progress in regard to research and writing was reported. Thus, the use of reflection while developing this project h elped me to control risks, in regard to the project’s structure and content, and to manage time more effectively, covering all aspects of the research question. 6.0 References BBC News (2016) UK must retaliate against cyber-attacks says chancellor. Available from: http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-37821867 [Accessed 15 March 2017]. BBC News (2011) Cyber criminals ‘should get tough sentences’ say police. Available from: http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-15680466 [Accessed 15 March 2017]. Cabinet Office (2011) The cost of cabinet crime. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/60943/the-cost-of-cyber-crime-full-report.pdf [Accessed 15 March 2017]. Cabinet Office (2014) The UK Cyber Security Strategy. Report on Progress and Forward Plans. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/386093/The_UK_Cyber_Security_Strategy_Report_on_Progress_and_Forward_Plans_-_De___.pdf [Accessed 15 March 2017]. Cole, H. (2017) UK Government and businesses are hit by two ‘serious’ cyber-attacks a day. The Sun. Available from: https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/2857508/uk-government-and-businesses-are-hit-by-two-serious-cyber-attacks-a-day/ [Accessed 15 March 2017]. Cuzzocrea, A., Kittl, C., Simos, D., Weippl, E. and Xu, L. (2013) Availability, Reliability, and Security in Information Systems and HCI: IFIP WG 8.4, 8.9, TC 5 International Cross-Domain Conference, CD-ARES 2013, Regensburg, Germany, September 2-6, 2013, Proceedings. New York: Springer. Day, T. (2013) Success in Academic Writing. Oxford: Palgrave Macmillan Doward, J. (2010) Britain fends off flood of foreign cyber-attacks. The Guardian. 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